This paper considers entrepreneurial leadership in a faith-based organization, the Scottish Episcopal Church (SEC), between 1996 and 2000. It analyses the strategy of the then Primate, Richard Holloway, to attempt to broaden the Church's membership base through a cultural change initiative. The initiative was designed to question and challenge existing cultural norms and attract new members who might not share them. Although Jungian type theory is usually applied to understanding individual differences, this paper employs type theory innovatively to describe and analyse the SEC's essentially pluralist culture at the time. It appears that a predominantly traditionalist approach was leavened with a more liberal and mystical strain. Holloway set out to define a new cultural vision embracing diversity and to attract others to make it happen. However, he was unable to convince enough existing SEC members that he was right to seek a more heterogeneous membership whose views would better reflect his own increasingly liberal stance. Understanding how fundamental views of reality, held often unconsciously by individuals, inform and influence culture in a faith-based organization sheds new light on the experiences of entrepreneurs in a religious environment. In this case, Jungian-derived type theory may explain how Holloway's entrepreneurial approach attempted to stretch existing cultural norms, reflecting tradition and convention, too far towards a questioning and challenging approach. An entrepreneurial strategy that appeared to make sense in rational terms (and to embrace the Christian ethic of universal acceptance) was ultimately unsuccessful in changing deeply held cultural norms.

As a result of a plethora of scholarly articles by feminist scholars of entrepreneurship, it is now widely accepted that the notion of entrepreneurship is ideologically skewed towards masculine ideology. Although this body of work has been quietly acknowledged, it has not invoked a reply, or refutation, from male entrepreneurship scholars. Nor has it led to an increase in studies about the influence of masculinity on entrepreneurial behaviour or identity. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to begin to address this by analysing an alternative social construction of entrepreneurship relating to how masculinity influences entrepreneurial identity in print. The data used are text from the thinly veiled biographical novel Cityboy written in an aggressive and unashamedly masculine style. Whilst the focus is not upon entrepreneurs per se, it is upon the male-oriented entrepreneurial institution that is the “city.” The methodological approach used in this paper is that of biographical analysis; supported by a supplementary analysis of similar biographies of traders; this is triangulated by photographs downloaded from the internet. This approach allows rich data to be collected from practical sources permitting a comparative approach to be adopted. The approach has obvious limitations but is a practical method. The results from this empirical study are tentative but illustrate that the socially constructed nature of the “city trader” as an entrepreneurial identity is portrayed as being a manly pursuit; and how such discrimination is inherent within an institutionalised systemic behaviour in which men are encouraged to be risk-takers and players. This institutionalised “boyish” behaviour is used to build up a masculine identity rooted in Thatcherite enterprise culture. Although no clear conclusion can be articulated because of the subjective nature of the interpretation, links with accepted entrepreneurship theory are drawn. It is thus an exploratory study into the pervasiveness of masculine doxa in constructing entrepreneurial identity. The paper makes an incremental contribution by acknowledging the power of male dominance in shaping entrepreneurial realities albeit the conclusions are mainly drawn from one book. This paper opens up the field for further studies of skewed masculine entrepreneurial identities under the rubric of the “bad boy entrepreneur.” In critically discussing and acknowledging the male genderedness of entrepreneurial identity in a particular system, this paper makes a contribution to the understanding of the socially constructed nature of how to tell, understand and appreciate stories which present an entrepreneurial identity. Granted the hero of the story is fictional but the overlaps with the accepted storylines of entrepreneur stories are illuminating. The paper provides another heuristic device for understanding the social construction of gendered entrepreneurial identities, making it of interest to feminist scholars of entrepreneurship and to social constructionists alike.

The purpose of this paper is to address the lack of conceptualisation within the emerging field of social enterprise, the aim is to contribute to a better understanding of process effectiveness and potential.The literature is drawn upon in providing a rationale for focusing on process, for selecting an appropriate organising framework, and for developing the typology and its key dimensions. In proposing two polar opposite “ideal types” – one based on traditional concepts of non-profit organisations and one that employs entrepreneurship as a strategy for achieving social aims (such as poverty and marginalisation) – the process components (activities, people and organising) and their interrelationship are explained. The dimensions of each component that facilitate or constrain entrepreneurship are conceptualised along a continuum, whereby a predisposition toward either end of the continuum forms the basis of classification. Upon assessing each process component, an overall determination of type can be made. Effectiveness – innovation in dealing with the challenges of social exclusion and marginalisation; increased self-sufficiency and sustainability – depends upon the extent to which the process components are congruently configured to foster entrepreneurship. With conceptualisation in its infancy, the emphasis to date has been on the similarities between social and commercial enterprises. Here, it has been focused on the key differences in process among social enterprise initiatives, thereby contributing new insights into social enterprising and its capacity for effectiveness. In explaining the impact of differing types on outcomes, practitioners and policymakers can develop more realistic expectations of what can be achieved.

This article explores the nature of micro finance, or micro credit, in rural Tanzania. It begins by examining the types of finance available to the poor who operate micro enterprises. We then consider the intended role and availability of micro credit in alleviating poverty. We find that most institutes which offer loan facilities operate mainly in urban centres, thus restricting accessibility for the rural poor. Moreover, the modest lending conditions have also created an obstacle for the poorest women. The empirical part of our study examines the impact of one institution, the SELF project which is specifically intended to address these issues. By means of a survey, we find that SELF loans have had some benefits in improving the profitability of micro enterprises run by rural poor women, but there seems to be little long–term effect as measured by increases in household assets.

This paper investigates the impact of adopting the Cadbury Committee's Code of Best Practices on the corporate performance of UK firms. The findings show improved corporate performance by companies which adopted the Code. Regarding the specific recommendations of the Code, splitting the positions of the Chairman of the Board and CEO does not result in improved corporate performance. The establishment of an internal audit and/or remuneration committee is positively associated with corporate performance, while the presence of a key executive director in such committees is negatively associated with corporate performance. There is a negative relation between corporate performance and the proportion of non-executive directors, but a positive relation between corporate performance and the square of the proportion of non-executive directors.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the moral awareness and ethical virtue of current university students with a view to identifying whether there are any gender differences. The study analysed undergraduate responses from final year honours student cohorts, one from a degree in accounting and finance (n=51), the other from a programme in business studies (n=79), to a series of value statements and a number of academic and business-related scenarios. The study employed a Kantian approach to ethics. Accounting students who had been exposed to ethical educational interventions do not display a higher level of moral awareness or ethical intention than their business counterparts. Whilst gender differences were apparent, this was only evident for moral awareness not ethical virtue and only the case for business students, thus suggesting that gender id may have more explanatory power than biological gender. The sample size was small as the study was restricted to relevant class populations and hence may not be generalisable. In addition, a gap may exist between what students state they would do in a situation and their actual behaviour. Further work is required which concentrates on gender id rather than biological gender and examines why feminine moral awareness would appear to be higher than the masculine but converges for ethical intention. The study presents a comparative analysis of two different student cohorts which enables a more detailed investigation of gender differences, initially for moral awareness and then ethical virtue.